Trajan, who ruled Rome from 98 to 117 AD, went down in history as a warrior emperor. Under his leadership, the Roman Empire reached its maximum power, and the stability of the state and the absence of repression during his reign allowed historians to deservedly consider Trajan the second of the so-called “five good emperors.” The emperor's contemporaries would probably agree with this assessment. The Roman Senate officially proclaimed Trajan “the best ruler” (optimus princeps), and subsequent emperors were guided by him, receiving parting words upon their accession to “be more successful than Augustus, and better than Trajan” (Felicior Augusto, melior Traiano). During the reign of Trajan, the Roman Empire conducted several successful military campaigns and reached largest sizes throughout its history.
The equipment of Roman legionnaires during the reign of Trajan was distinguished by functionality. The centuries-old military experience accumulated by the Roman army harmoniously combined with the military traditions of the peoples conquered by the Romans. We invite you to take a closer look at the weapons and equipment of the Roman legionary infantryman of the early 2nd century AD in the interactive special project Warspot.
Helmet
At the beginning of the 1st century AD, Roman gunsmiths on the Upper Rhine, taking as a basis the Celtic model of a helmet that had previously been used in Gaul, began to produce combat headbands with a deep solid forged iron dome, a wide backplate to protect the neck, and an iron visor in front, additionally covering the face from attacks from above. chopping blows, and large cheekpieces equipped with chased decorations. The front dome of the helmet was decorated with embossed decorations in the form of eyebrows or wings, which allowed some researchers to attribute the first such helmets to the warriors of the Legion of Larks (V Alaudae), recruited by Julius Caesar among the Romanized Gauls.
Another characteristic feature of this type of helmet was the cutouts for the ears, covered with bronze plates on top. Bronze decorations and plates are also characteristic, looking very effective against the background of the light surface of the polished iron of the helmet. Elegant and extremely functional, this type of helmet of the Gallic series became the predominant model of combat headgear in the Roman army by the end of the 1st century. Based on his model, weapons workshops located in Italy, as well as in other provinces of the Roman Empire, began to forge their products. An additional feature, which apparently appeared during Trajan's Dacian Wars, was an iron crosspiece, which was used to strengthen the dome of the helmet from above. This detail was supposed to give even greater strength to the helmet and protect it from the blows of the terrible Dacian scythes.
Plate armor
The reliefs of Trajan's Column, erected in Rome in 113 to commemorate the conquest of Dacia, depict legionnaires dressed in plate armor, the so-called. lorica segmentata, while auxiliary infantry and cavalry wear chain mail or scale armor. But such a division is probably not true. Contemporary to the Column reliefs, depictions of Trajan's Trophy at Adamiklissia show legionnaires wearing chain mail, and archaeological finds of pieces of plate armor in border forts occupied by auxiliary units indicate that soldiers in these units wore lorica.
The name lorica segmentata is a modern term for plate armor, known from numerous images of the 1st–3rd centuries. Its Roman name, if there was one, remains unknown. The oldest finds of plates of this armor come from excavations at Mount Kalkriese in Germany, identified as the site of the battle of the Teutoburg Forest. Its appearance and spread therefore date back to the final stage of the reign of Augustus, if not to an earlier time. Various points of view have been expressed regarding the origin of this type of armor. Some derive it from the solid armor worn by the Gallic gladiators, the Crupellars, while others see it as an eastern development, better suited to holding the arrows of Parthian archers in comparison with traditional chain mail. It is also unclear the extent to which plate armor was widespread in the ranks of the Roman army: whether soldiers wore it everywhere or only in some special units. The extent of the distribution of finds of individual pieces of armor rather testifies in favor of the first hypothesis, however, there can be no talk of uniformity of protective weapons in the style of images of reliefs of Trajan’s Column.
In the absence of real finds about the structure of plate armor, many different hypotheses were put forward. Finally, in 1964, during excavations at a border fort in Corbridge (Britain), two well-preserved examples of armor were found. This allowed the British archaeologist H. Russell Robinson to reconstruct the Lorica segmentata of the late 1st century, as well as draw certain conclusions about the structure of the armor of a later period, previously found during excavations at Newstead. Both armor belonged to the so-called laminar type of armor. Horizontal stripes, slightly funnel-shaped, were riveted from the inside onto a leather belt. The plates overlapped slightly on top of one another and formed an extremely flexible metal covering for the body. Two semicircular sections made up the right and left parts of the armor. With the help of straps they were fastened on the back and chest. A separate composite section was used to cover the upper chest. Using straps or hooks, the bib was connected to the corresponding side half. Flexible shoulder pads were attached to the breastplate on top. To put on the armor, it was necessary to put your hands through the side openings and fasten it on the chest, like a vest.
Lamellar armor was durable, flexible, lightweight and at the same time a very reliable means of protection. In this capacity, he existed in the Roman army from the beginning of the 1st to the middle of the 3rd century AD.
Bracers
In the reliefs of Trajan's Trophy at Adamiklissi, some Roman soldiers wear bracers to protect their forearms and hands. This piece of equipment is of Eastern origin and consists of a vertical row of plates riveted from the inside onto a belt the full length of the arm. This type of protective equipment was rarely used in the Roman army, but judging by the images, it was worn by gladiators. When Trajan's troops began to suffer heavy losses from the blows of the Dacian scythes, he ordered the hands of his soldiers to be protected with the same armor. Most likely, this was a short-term measure, and in the future this piece of equipment did not take root in the army.
Sword
In the middle - second half of the 1st century, a sword with a blade 40–55 cm long, 4.8 to 6 cm wide and a rather short point became widespread in the Roman army. Judging by the proportions of the blade, it was mainly intended for cutting down an enemy who was not wearing protective armor. Its shape was already very vaguely reminiscent of the original gladius, the characteristic feature of which was a long and thin tip. These modifications of weapons corresponded to the new political situation on the borders of the empire, the enemies of which were now the barbarians - the Germans and Dacians.
Legionnaires carried a sword in a sheath of a frame design. On the front side they were decorated with bronze slotted plates with geometric patterns and figured images. The scabbard had two pairs of clips, on the sides of which side rings were attached. Through them passed the end of the belt of the sword belt, split in two, on which the scabbard with the sword was suspended. The lower end of the belt passed under the belt and connected to the lower ring, the upper end passed over the belt to the upper ring. This fastening ensured reliable fixation of the scabbard in a vertical position and made it possible to quickly grab the sword without holding the scabbard with your hand.
Dagger
On the left side, on the waist belt, Roman legionnaires continued to wear a dagger (not visible in the illustration). Its wide blade was forged from iron, had a stiffening rib, symmetrical blades and an elongated tip. The length of the blade could reach 30–35 cm, width - 5 cm. The dagger was worn in a sheath of a frame design. The front side of the scabbard was usually richly inlaid with silver, brass, or decorated with black, red, yellow or green enamel. The scabbard was suspended from the belt using a pair of straps passed through two pairs of side rings. With such a suspension, the handle was always directed upward, and the weapon was always ready for combat use.
Pilum
On the reliefs of Trajan's Column, Roman legionnaires wear a pilum, which at this time retains its significance as a first-strike weapon. Judging by archaeological finds, its design has not changed from earlier times.
Some soldiers, distinguished by great physical strength, supplied the pilum shaft with spherical lead attachments, which increased the weight of the weapon and, accordingly, increased the severity of the blow it inflicted. These attachments are known from pictorial monuments II – III centuries, but have not yet been found among real archaeological finds.
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Shield
At the end of the 1st century BC, the upper and lower edges of the oval shield, known from images of the Republic era, were straightened, and by the middle of the century the side edges also became straight. The shield thus acquired a quadrangular shape, known from the reliefs on Trajan's Column. At the same time, oval-shaped shields, known from images of earlier times, also continued to be used.
The design of the shield remained the same as before. Its dimensions, judging by the proportions of the warriors’ figures, were 1×0.5 m. These figures correspond well to archaeological finds of later times. The base of the shield was made of three layers of thin wooden planks, glued at right angles to each other. The thickness of the wood, judging by the surviving rivets of the umbos, was about 6 mm.
The outside of the shield was covered with leather and richly painted. Subjects depicted included laurel wreaths, lightning bolts of Jupiter, and the coat of arms of individual legions. Along the perimeter, the edges of the shield were lined with bronze clips so that the wood would not be chipped by blows from enemy swords. The shield was held in the hand by the handle formed by a transverse wooden plank. In the center of the shield field, a semicircular cutout was made, into which the hand holding the handle was inserted. From the outside, the cutout was covered with a bronze or iron umbon, which, as a rule, was richly decorated with engraved images. The weight of a modern reconstruction of such a shield was approximately 7.5 kg.
Tunic
The soldier's tunic has not changed much from previous times. As before, it was cut from two rectangular pieces of woolen fabric approximately 1.5 x 1.3 m, sewn at the sides and at the neck. The opening for the head and neck remained wide enough, so that during field work, for greater freedom of movement, soldiers could pull down one of its sleeves, completely exposing the right shoulder and arm. At the waist, the tunic was gathered into folds and secured with a belt. A highly belted tunic that exposed the knees was considered a sign of the military.
In the cold season, some soldiers wore two tunics, with the lower one made of linen or fine wool. The Romans did not know any specific statutory color of clothing. Most soldiers wore tunics made of undyed wool. Those who were richer could wear tunics of red, green or blue. In ceremonial conditions, officers and centurions wore bright white tunics. To decorate the tunics, two stripes of bright color were sewn on their sides - the so-called claves. The usual cost of tunics was 25 drachmas, and this amount was deducted from the soldier's salary.
Trousers
The Romans, like the Greeks, considered pants an attribute of barbarism. During the cold season, they wore woolen wrappings on their legs. Short trousers to protect the skin of the thighs from horse sweat were worn by Gallic and German horsemen, who served en masse in the Roman army since the times of Caesar and Augustus. In the cold season, they were also worn by infantrymen of the auxiliary troops, who were also recruited from among the non-Romanized subjects of the empire.
The legionnaires depicted on Trajan's Column still do not wear pants, but Emperor Trajan himself and senior officers who rode for long periods of time are depicted wearing tight and short breeches. During the first half of the 2nd century, the fashion for this clothing spread among all categories of troops, and on the reliefs of the Column of Marcus Aurelius, short pants are already worn by all categories of troops.
Tie
On the reliefs of Trajan's Column, soldiers are depicted with ties. Their function is to protect the upper part of the tunic from friction and damage caused by the armor. Another purpose of the tie is made clear by its later name “sudarion”, which comes from the Latin sudor - “sweat”.
Penula
In inclement weather or during the cold season, soldiers wore raincoats over their clothes and armor. One of the most common cloak models was the penula. It was woven from coarse sheep or even goat wool. The civilian version of the cloak, called lacerna, had a finer finish. The shape of the penule resembled half an oval, the straight sides of which met at the front and were fastened with two pairs of buttons.
In some sculptures there is no cut. In this case, the penula, like a modern poncho, had the shape of an oval with a central hole and was worn over the head. To protect from bad weather, it was equipped with a deep hood. In a civilian lazern, such a hood, as a rule, was attached. The length of the penula reached the knees. Being wide enough, it allowed soldiers to freely use their hands without taking off their cloak. In frescoes and color images, the military cloak is usually brown.
Kaligi
The soldiers' footwear were heavy Kaliga boots. The shoe blank was cut from one piece of thick cowhide. The toes in the shoe remained open, and the straps that covered the sides of the foot and ankle were cut through, which provided the feet with good ventilation.
The sole consisted of 3 layers stitched together. For greater strength, it was reinforced from below with iron nails. It took 80–90 nails to tamp one shoe, and the weight of a pair of nails reached 1.3–1.5 kg. The nails on the sole were arranged in a certain pattern, reinforcing those parts of it that were more worn out during the hike.
According to the observations of modern reenactors, the nailed shoes wore well on dirt roads and in the fields, but in the mountains and on the cobblestones of city streets they slipped on the stones. In addition, the nails on the sole gradually wore out and required constant replacement. One pair of caligas was enough for approximately 500–1000 km of march, and 10 percent of the nails had to be changed every 100 km. Thus, in two or three weeks of march, the Roman legion lost about 10 thousand nails.
Belt
The belt was an important part of Roman men's clothing. Boys wore a belt as a sign of reaching adulthood. The military wore wide leather belts, which distinguished them from civilians. The belt was worn over the armor and was richly decorated with bronze relief or engraved plates. For a decorative effect, the overlays were sometimes coated with silver and equipped with enamel inserts.
Roman belts from the end of the 1st century BC to the beginning of the 2nd century AD had a kind of apron made of 4–8 belts, covered with bronze overlays and ending with terminal decorations. Apparently, this detail served a purely decorative function and was worn for the sound effect it created. A dagger and sometimes a wallet with small money were hung from the belt. The Romans, as a rule, wore a sword on a shoulder belt.
Leggings
Leggings were part of the protective armor that covered the legs from the knee to the instep of the foot, that is, they covered that part of them that was not usually covered by a shield. Officers and centurions on monuments of the 1st and 2nd centuries were often depicted wearing greaves, the wearing of which was something of a symbol of their rank. Their leggings were decorated with chasing with the image of the head of Medusa in the knee part, the side surface was decorated with tufts of lightning and floral patterns. On the contrary, ordinary soldiers were usually depicted without greaves at this time.
During the era of the Dacian Wars, greaves returned to military equipment to protect the legs of soldiers from blows from Dacian scythes. Although the soldiers in the reliefs of Trajan's Column do not wear greaves, they are present in depictions of Trajan's Trophy at Adamklisi. Roman soldiers on reliefs wear one or two greaves. This detail of military equipment is also present in sculptures and frescoes of later times. Archaeological finds of leggings are simple iron plates 35 cm long, with a longitudinal stiffening rib, devoid of any decoration. They cover the leg only up to the knee; perhaps a separate piece of armor was used to protect the knee itself. For fastening on the leg, the leggings are equipped with four pairs of rings through which a belt was passed.
As researchers note, the “turtle” was primarily used during sieges, when legionnaires tried to storm the gates or make a tunnel. At the same time, according to the ancient Greek writer, although such a construction represents “a theatrical spectacle, it serves as the most reliable protection against arrows that slide off the surface of the shields.” During battles, legionnaires always held the scutum in their left hand. Thus, being in a line, each soldier protected not only himself, but also partially the warrior standing to his left. The short sword (gladius) was attached to the right hip: this made it easier to grab it so as not to injure anyone in a rather dense formation.
Scutum on Trajan's Column in Rome 113 AD. e. (wikimedia.org)
In general, there were several types of shields in Ancient Rome. It is noted that the scutum first appeared in the 8th century BC, but it spread throughout the Roman army by the 4th century BC. e. The ancient Greek historian Polybius, who lived in the second century BC, described the scutum as follows: according to him, it was a large convex shield two and a half feet (that is, about 75 cm) wide and four fugues (about 120 cm) high . Consequently, such a shield could, of course, not completely, but cover almost two-thirds of the human body. It was made from two layers of wood glued together (the glue was made from ox hide). Then the outer surface was covered with canvas, and then with smooth calfskin, which, it should be noted, was by no means a decorative element: for example, the leather covering protected the shield from rain. A frame of iron strips was made along the edges of the scutum: this was necessary for additional protection from the blow of a sword and, in general, from wear.
Scutum. (wikimedia.org)
Scutums of the legions with their emblems. (wikimedia.org)
An umbon, a bronze or iron cone, was attached to the center of the scutum. Thanks to its streamlined shape, it served as protection from weapon strikes: swords, spears, and axes slipped, and the legionnaire had a chance to make a counterattack. Moreover, in close combat, the same umbo could be used to deliver stunning blows to the enemy, although with a weight of about 7 kg, unlike the same lighter Greek round hoplon, it was most likely quite difficult to attack with a Roman shield. However, in addition to military functions, the umbon could also serve as a household one: it is believed that a soldier could store various small things in it, given that the knob could be removed. Opposite it, on the inside of the shield, a handle was attached, which consisted of a loop and a metal bracket. As a rule, the name of the owner was left on it along with the number of his cohort. In this case, the identification marks of each of the legions were placed on the outside of the shield, on its leather surface around the umbon. Thus, Vegetius wrote that “different cohorts had different signs painted on their shields.”
Anti-shock shields for riot police. (wikimedia.org)
Riot police with shields. (wikimedia.org)
Interestingly, the legacy of the Roman military machine continues to live on today. For example, in the equipment of Russian police units that participate in ensuring “law and order” at various kinds of rallies and demonstrations, there are two whole classes of shields that really resemble Roman scutums. The first type is shockproof shields. They are made primarily from aluminum alloys, as well as transparent (or opaque) plastic, so they serve to protect against impacts from sticks and stones. The second type is armored shields. They, as you might guess, are designed to save you from a bullet, not only from a pistol, but also from weapons of a larger caliber. Since the time of the scutum, modern shields have become smaller and lighter. Thus, the turtle, not from the ancient Roman legionnaires, but from modern domestic law enforcement officers, consists largely of shock-proof shields, the average length of which is 90 cm, width - 50 cm, and their average weight varies from 3.2 to 4.5 kg. At the same time, the tactics of combat within such a system have not changed as a whole: only instead of gladiuses in the hands of the police, batons are less bloodthirsty, but no less severe.
One of latest works something has been overlooked, especially since it has been translated into Russian.
Useful quote: "Vitruvius main architector Rome in the first decades of the empire, wrote that of all the natural colors used for dyeing fabric and for painting, red and yellow are the easiest and cheapest to obtain(Vitr. VII, 1-2)"
Quote from: Dando-Collins S. Legions of Rome. Complete history of all legions of the Roman Empire 2015 p.29SpoilerTarget"> Spoiler: On the topic of symbolism on the shields of the legions
"Each legion and auxiliary unit had its own, distinct emblem, just like the Praetorian Guard. These emblems appeared on the shield of each soldier. Roman soldiers all wore the same uniform and used similar equipment, and the only way to distinguish one unit from another was emblems on shields. During the night phase of the Battle of Cremona in 69 AD, two enterprising soldiers from Vespasian's army took the shields of dead enemies with the emblem of the legion that was on Vitellius's side, and with such camouflage were able to freely get through the enemy's ranks to the bridge. the massive catapult used by the Vitellian legion became unusable (Tas. N. III, 23). The most often used symbols of the imperial legions were animals or birds, especially those that had religious significance for the Romans, such as the eagle, bull, stork and lion. Some legions used images from Greco-Roman mythology - Pegasus, a centaur, the lightning of Mars and the trident of Neptune. The Celts believed that the boar warded off evil, and the boar appears on the pommels of Celtic helmets and on the ornaments of shields. Cisalpine Gaul in Northern Italy, which Rome made a province of in 220 BC. e., was inhabited by Celtic tribes. Even after Rome officially incorporated Cisalpine Gaul into Italy in 42 BC. e., some Celtic customs have been preserved. Several legions recruited in Italy used the boar as a symbol, among them I Italian and XX Valeriev the Victorious. Likewise, the centaur, associated with the region of Thessaly in Greece, where centaurs were said to live, naturally became the emblem of the legions recruited in Macedonia and Thrace at the end of the 2nd century - the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Parthians.
As stated above (see p. 69), it was often, although incorrectly, asserted that all the legions recruited by Julius Caesar bore the bull emblem. It was also said that those whose emblem was the “sea goat” - a capricorn - were recruited or reorganized by Octavian. None of these statements are true. Of the legions that may have been associated with Caesar, most actually had emblems other than the bull. For example, of the four legions that are known to have been recruited by Caesar in Italy in 58-56 BC. e., - XI and XIV, neither used the bull emblem. On the contrary, Keppi notes that at least three of Octavin's legions, which he says were not related to Caesar, used the symbol of the bull (Kerr. CVSI. N35, 2.2). Of the legions with the bull emblem, none had a number higher than X. Nevertheless, Caesar recruited many legions with numbers higher than X. In fact, he recruited as many as forty legions. Caesar himself never used the bull as an emblem - his personal motif was the elephant.
In reality, the “common denominator” that united the legions with the bull symbol was not Caesar, but Spain. As mentioned above, Keppi convincingly suggested that Republican Rome stationed legions numbered up to X in Spain for years. Legions V through X were apparently subsequently recruited there. Even today, the bull is a symbol directly associated with Spain, where bullfighting has such ancient roots. Both the Romans and the Carthaginians before them were amazed that the local inhabitants of Spain - the Celtiberians - preserved the traditions of bullfights; in these ancient competitions in Baetica, the bulls were dealt a fatal blow with a spear or an ax (Bon. B & B).
In both the late Republic and the early Imperial era, the bull emblem was used by every legion numbered IV to X, except one, the V Legion of the Larks, which adopted the elephant symbol after the Battle of Thapsus, and before that it may have had a bull. Only one legion with a different number - III Gallic - is known to use the bull symbol. This is quite possible, since the Republican III Legion served under Pompey in Spain between 59 and 49 BC. e. The IV Flavian Legion, which replaced the IV Macedonian Legion, adopted the lion emblem associated with the Flavians. In the same way, it is often written that all the legions that used the emblem of the sea goat - capricorn, were recruited by Octavian Augustus, or at least associated with him. This is another myth. Legions created much later than the reign of Augustus, such units as the XXII legion of Fortuna the Firstborn (recruited by Caligula), I Italic (Nero), I Auxiliary and II Auxiliary (Galba-Vitellius-Vespasian), XXX Ulpius (Trajan) and II Italic (Marcus Aurelius), used the symbol of Capricorn; this was because Capricorn was the zodiac sign under which the legion was “born”. All legions wore a sign associated with the moment of their formation. The sign of Capricorn was associated with the period of midwinter, when many legions were recruited for the service that began the following spring, and therefore it was the most often used of all twelve signs of the zodiac and, apparently, was considered lucky. It is true that the standards of several legions in Octavian's standing army from 30 BC onwards. e. considered Capricorn a symbol of their “birthday”. The same legions had separate unit emblems. For example, the II Augustan Legion had the flying horse Pegasus as its emblem and considered Capricorn its zodiac sign. Both IV Macedonian and IV Scythian used the bull and the zodiac sign Capricorn as their emblem. XX Valeriev the Victorious used the symbol of the boar and the sign of Capricorn. And so on. Many modern authors also wrote that from the 2nd century AD. e. The lightning bolt became the standard emblem of all legions, but the data available to us contradicts this. The lightning bolt hypothesis is based on the fact that all the shields of the legions and praetorian guards shown on Trajan's Column (which was erected in 113 AD) bear some form of lightning symbol. This is more of a coincidence than historical fact, since besides the Praetorian Guard, only four units recruited from citizens are reliably known to have used the lightning bolt as an emblem in the imperial era - XI Claudius, XII Lightning, XIV Double Mars Victorious and XXX Ulpius. Why then are there so many shields with the symbol of lightning on Trajan’s Column? It is possible that the Praetorian Guard, the only civilian force stationed in the capital, served as a model for the Greek artisans who created the images on Trajan's Column when they were made in Rome between 106 and 113. The artists apparently had no understanding of Roman military culture or the corporate significance of legion emblems. They were supposed to represent the emblems of the shields that their models carried. Consequently, ultimately, all the shields shown on the column depict lightning - the emblem of the Praetorians in different versions depending on the cohort. There is evidence to suggest that each cohort in the Praetorian Guard used a different version of the lightning symbol (see p. 443). Notitia Dignitatum in the 5th century. depicts designs of shields of many legions and auxiliary units; None of them have a lightning bolt emblem. One would expect that by the time the Notitia Dignitatum was compiled, Christian symbols would have already replaced the old emblems of the legions of pagan Rome, since Christianity had already been the official Roman religion for almost a century. It is surprising that there are very few crosses on the shields in the Notitia Dignitatum and not a single shield contains the Christian symbol "chi-rho" which Constantine the Great is said to have ordered his men to depict on their shields. The only definitely Christian emblem - a pair of angels - appears on the shields of two divisions of the bodyguard of the eastern (but not western) emperor - Equites Domestici and Pedites Domestici - cavalry and foot troops of the domestics (Berg. IND).
An emblem that did appear on many of the shields of the legions and auxiliaries in the Notitia Dignitatum was the wheel of the pagan goddess Fortune. Ammianus Marcellinus, who wrote at the end of the 4th century, pointed out the importance that the wheel of Fortune still had for the Roman troops, speaking of the "winged wheel of Fortune" which "alternates between happy and unfortunate events" (Amm. XXXI, I, 1) . By the 5th century the bull of V Macedonian was replaced by a rosette (Berg. IND). The rosette was a military symbol, also associated with the goddess Bellona, and was widely used to decorate the shields and tombs of legionnaires from the beginning of the imperial period. We can say that lightning was abandoned because it was a symbol of a pagan god, but nevertheless, as can be seen from the above, the wheel of Fortune and the rosette, also symbols of pagan gods, were also used in Christian times.
By the 5th century, many imperial-era legions had replaced their original emblems. For example, the III Augustan Legion used a simple circle design. By this time, two Imperial VII Legions survived: one used the symbol of a ten-pointed star, the other a nine-spoked wheel of Fortune. The I Legion Italica replaced the boar symbol with a circular motif, while the II Italica settled on a four-spoke wheel. Nevertheless, the XIII Twin and in the 5th century still considered the lion as its emblem, just as it had been since the reign of Augustus (Berg. IND)."
Decree. Op. With. 83-87
An attempt to reconstruct the symbolism of the legions, see below
Trajan, who ruled Rome from 98 to 117 AD, went down in history as a warrior emperor. Under his leadership, the Roman Empire reached its maximum power, and the stability of the state and the absence of repression during his reign allowed historians to deservedly consider Trajan the second of the so-called “five good emperors.” The emperor's contemporaries would probably agree with this assessment. The Roman Senate officially proclaimed Trajan “the best ruler” (optimus princeps), and subsequent emperors were guided by him, receiving parting words upon their accession to “be more successful than Augustus, and better than Trajan” (Felicior Augusto, melior Traiano). During the reign of Trajan, the Roman Empire conducted several successful military campaigns and reached the largest size in its entire history.
The equipment of Roman legionnaires during the reign of Trajan was distinguished by functionality. The centuries-old military experience accumulated by the Roman army harmoniously combined with the military traditions of the peoples conquered by the Romans. We invite you to take a closer look at the weapons and equipment of a Roman legionary infantryman from the early 2nd century AD.
Helmet
At the beginning of the 1st century AD, Roman gunsmiths on the Upper Rhine, taking as a basis the Celtic model of a helmet that had previously been used in Gaul, began to produce combat headbands with a deep solid forged iron dome, a wide backplate to protect the neck, and an iron visor in front, additionally covering the face from attacks from above. chopping blows, and large cheekpieces equipped with chased decorations. The front dome of the helmet was decorated with embossed decorations in the form of eyebrows or wings, which allowed some researchers to attribute the first such helmets to the warriors of the Legion of Larks (V Alaudae), recruited by Julius Caesar among the Romanized Gauls.
Another characteristic feature of this type of helmet was the cutouts for the ears, covered with bronze plates on top. Bronze decorations and plates are also characteristic, looking very effective against the background of the light surface of the polished iron of the helmet. Elegant and extremely functional, this type of helmet of the Gallic series became the predominant model of combat headgear in the Roman army by the end of the 1st century. Based on his model, weapons workshops located in Italy, as well as in other provinces of the Roman Empire, began to forge their products. An additional feature, which apparently appeared during Trajan's Dacian Wars, was an iron crosspiece, which was used to strengthen the dome of the helmet from above. This detail was supposed to give even greater strength to the helmet and protect it from the blows of the terrible Dacian scythes.
Tie
On the reliefs of Trajan's Column, soldiers are depicted with ties. Their function is to protect the upper part of the tunic from friction and damage caused by the armor. Another purpose of the tie is made clear by its later name “sudarion”, which comes from the Latin sudor - “sweat”.
Penula
In inclement weather or during the cold season, soldiers wore raincoats over their clothes and armor. One of the most common cloak models was the penula. It was woven from coarse sheep or even goat wool. The civilian version of the cloak, called lacerna, had a finer finish. The shape of the penule resembled half an oval, the straight sides of which met at the front and were fastened with two pairs of buttons.
In some sculptures there is no cut. In this case, the penula, like a modern poncho, had the shape of an oval with a central hole and was worn over the head. To protect from bad weather, it was equipped with a deep hood. In a civilian lazern, such a hood, as a rule, was attached. The length of the penula reached the knees. Being wide enough, it allowed soldiers to freely use their hands without taking off their cloak. In frescoes and color images, the military cloak is usually brown.
Plate armor
The reliefs of Trajan's Column, erected in Rome in 113 to commemorate the conquest of Dacia, depict legionnaires dressed in plate armor, the so-called. lorica segmentata, while auxiliary infantry and cavalry wear chain mail or scale armor. But such a division is probably not true. Contemporary to the Column reliefs, depictions of Trajan's Trophy at Adamiklissia show legionnaires wearing chain mail, and archaeological finds of pieces of plate armor in border forts occupied by auxiliary units indicate that soldiers in these units wore lorica.
The name lorica segmentata is a modern term for plate armor, known from numerous images of the 1st–3rd centuries. Its Roman name, if there was one, remains unknown. The oldest finds of plates of this armor come from excavations at Mount Kalkriese in Germany, identified as the site of the battle in the Teutoburg Forest. Its appearance and spread therefore date back to the final stage of the reign of Augustus, if not to an earlier time. Various points of view have been expressed regarding the origin of this type of armor. Some derive it from the solid armor worn by the Gallic gladiators, the Crupellars, while others see it as an eastern development, better suited to holding the arrows of Parthian archers in comparison with traditional chain mail. It is also unclear the extent to which plate armor was widespread in the ranks of the Roman army: whether soldiers wore it everywhere or only in some special units. The extent of the distribution of finds of individual pieces of armor rather testifies in favor of the first hypothesis, however, there can be no talk of uniformity of protective weapons in the style of images of reliefs of Trajan’s Column.
In the absence of real finds about the structure of plate armor, many different hypotheses were put forward. Finally, in 1964, during excavations at a border fort in Corbridge (Britain), two well-preserved examples of armor were found. This allowed the British archaeologist H. Russell Robinson to reconstruct the Lorica segmentata of the late 1st century, as well as draw certain conclusions about the structure of the armor of a later period, previously found during excavations at Newstead. Both armor belonged to the so-called laminar type of armor. Horizontal stripes, slightly funnel-shaped, were riveted from the inside onto a leather belt. The plates overlapped slightly on top of one another and formed an extremely flexible metal covering for the body. Two semicircular sections made up the right and left parts of the armor. With the help of straps they were fastened on the back and chest. A separate composite section was used to cover the upper chest. Using straps or hooks, the bib was connected to the corresponding side half. Flexible shoulder pads were attached to the breastplate on top. To put on the armor, it was necessary to put your hands through the side openings and fasten it on the chest, like a vest.
Lamellar armor was durable, flexible, lightweight and at the same time a very reliable means of protection. In this capacity, he existed in the Roman army from the beginning of the 1st to the middle of the 3rd century AD.
Bracers
In the reliefs of Trajan's Trophy at Adamiklissi, some Roman soldiers wear bracers to protect their forearms and hands. This piece of equipment is of Eastern origin and consists of a vertical row of plates riveted from the inside onto a belt the full length of the arm. This type of protective equipment was rarely used in the Roman army, but judging by the images, it was worn by gladiators. When Trajan's troops began to suffer heavy losses from the blows of the Dacian scythes, he ordered the hands of his soldiers to be protected with the same armor. Most likely, this was a short-term measure, and in the future this piece of equipment did not take root in the army.
In the middle - second half of the 1st century, a sword with a blade 40–55 cm long, 4.8 to 6 cm wide and a rather short point became widespread in the Roman army. Judging by the proportions of the blade, it was mainly intended for cutting down an enemy who was not wearing protective armor. Its shape was already very vaguely reminiscent of the original gladius, the characteristic feature of which was a long and thin tip. These modifications of weapons corresponded to the new political situation on the borders of the empire, the enemies of which were now the barbarians - the Germans and Dacians.
Legionnaires carried a sword in a sheath of a frame design. On the front side they were decorated with bronze slotted plates with geometric patterns and figured images. The scabbard had two pairs of clips, on the sides of which side rings were attached. Through them passed the end of the belt of the sword belt, split in two, on which the scabbard with the sword was suspended. The lower end of the belt passed under the belt and connected to the lower ring, the upper end passed over the belt to the upper ring. This fastening ensured reliable fixation of the scabbard in a vertical position and made it possible to quickly grab the sword without holding the scabbard with your hand.
Dagger
On the left side, on the waist belt, Roman legionnaires continued to wear a dagger (not visible in the illustration). Its wide blade was forged from iron, had a stiffening rib, symmetrical blades and an elongated tip. The length of the blade could reach 30–35 cm, width - 5 cm. The dagger was worn in a sheath of a frame design. The front side of the scabbard was usually richly inlaid with silver, brass, or decorated with black, red, yellow or green enamel. The scabbard was suspended from the belt using a pair of straps passed through two pairs of side rings. With such a suspension, the handle was always directed upward, and the weapon was always ready for combat use.
On the reliefs of Trajan's Column, Roman legionnaires wear a pilum, which at this time retains its significance as a first-strike weapon. Judging by archaeological finds, its design has not changed from earlier times.
Some soldiers, distinguished by great physical strength, supplied the pilum shaft with spherical lead attachments, which increased the weight of the weapon and, accordingly, increased the severity of the blow it inflicted. These attachments are known from pictorial monuments of the 2nd–3rd centuries, but have not yet been found among real archaeological finds.
The belt was an important part of Roman men's clothing. Boys wore a belt as a sign of reaching adulthood. The military wore wide leather belts, which distinguished them from civilians. The belt was worn over the armor and was richly decorated with bronze relief or engraved plates. For a decorative effect, the overlays were sometimes coated with silver and equipped with enamel inserts.
Roman belts from the end of the 1st century BC to the beginning of the 2nd century AD had a kind of apron made of 4–8 belts, covered with bronze overlays and ending with terminal decorations. Apparently, this detail served a purely decorative function and was worn for the sound effect it created. A dagger and sometimes a wallet with small money were hung from the belt. The Romans, as a rule, wore a sword on a shoulder belt.
At the end of the 1st century BC, the upper and lower edges of the oval shield, known from images of the Republic era, were straightened, and by the middle of the century the side edges also became straight. The shield thus acquired a quadrangular shape, known from the reliefs on Trajan's Column. At the same time, oval-shaped shields, known from images of earlier times, also continued to be used.
The design of the shield remained the same as before. Its dimensions, judging by the proportions of the warriors’ figures, were 1×0.5 m. These figures correspond well to archaeological finds of later times. The base of the shield was made of three layers of thin wooden planks, glued at right angles to each other. The thickness of the wood, judging by the surviving rivets of the umbos, was about 6 mm.
The outside of the shield was covered with leather and richly painted. Subjects depicted included laurel wreaths, lightning bolts of Jupiter, and the coat of arms of individual legions. Along the perimeter, the edges of the shield were lined with bronze clips so that the wood would not be chipped by blows from enemy swords. The shield was held in the hand by the handle formed by a transverse wooden plank. In the center of the shield field, a semicircular cutout was made, into which the hand holding the handle was inserted. From the outside, the cutout was covered with a bronze or iron umbon, which, as a rule, was richly decorated with engraved images. The weight of a modern reconstruction of such a shield was approximately 7.5 kg.
The soldiers' footwear were heavy Kaliga boots. The shoe blank was cut from one piece of thick cowhide. The toes in the shoe remained open, and the straps that covered the sides of the foot and ankle were cut through, which provided the feet with good ventilation.
The sole consisted of 3 layers stitched together. For greater strength, it was reinforced from below with iron nails. It took 80–90 nails to tamp one shoe, and the weight of a pair of nails reached 1.3–1.5 kg. The nails on the sole were arranged in a certain pattern, reinforcing those parts of it that were more worn out during the hike.
According to the observations of modern reenactors, the nailed shoes wore well on dirt roads and in the fields, but in the mountains and on the cobblestones of city streets they slipped on the stones. In addition, the nails on the sole gradually wore out and required constant replacement. One pair of caligas was enough for approximately 500–1000 km of march, and 10 percent of the nails had to be changed every 100 km. Thus, in two or three weeks of march, the Roman legion lost about 10 thousand nails.
Leggings were part of the protective armor that covered the legs from the knee to the instep of the foot, that is, they covered that part of them that was not usually covered by a shield. Officers and centurions on monuments of the 1st and 2nd centuries were often depicted wearing greaves, the wearing of which was something of a symbol of their rank. Their leggings were decorated with chasing with the image of the head of Medusa in the knee part, the side surface was decorated with tufts of lightning and floral patterns. On the contrary, ordinary soldiers were usually depicted without greaves at this time.
During the era of the Dacian Wars, greaves returned to military equipment to protect the legs of soldiers from blows from Dacian scythes. Although the soldiers in the reliefs of Trajan's Column do not wear greaves, they are present in depictions of Trajan's Trophy at Adamklisi. Roman soldiers on reliefs wear one or two greaves. This detail of military equipment is also present in sculptures and frescoes of later times. Archaeological finds of leggings are simple iron plates 35 cm long, with a longitudinal stiffening rib, devoid of any decoration. They cover the leg only up to the knee; perhaps a separate piece of armor was used to protect the knee itself. For fastening on the leg, the leggings are equipped with four pairs of rings through which a belt was passed.
The soldier's tunic has not changed much from previous times. As before, it was cut from two rectangular pieces of woolen fabric approximately 1.5 x 1.3 m, sewn at the sides and at the neck. The opening for the head and neck remained wide enough, so that during field work, for greater freedom of movement, soldiers could pull down one of its sleeves, completely exposing the right shoulder and arm. At the waist, the tunic was gathered into folds and secured with a belt. A highly belted tunic that exposed the knees was considered a sign of the military.
In the cold season, some soldiers wore two tunics, with the lower one made of linen or fine wool. The Romans did not know any specific statutory color of clothing. Most soldiers wore tunics made of undyed wool. Those who were richer could wear tunics of red, green or blue. In ceremonial conditions, officers and centurions wore bright white tunics. To decorate the tunics, two stripes of bright color were sewn on their sides - the so-called claves. The usual cost of tunics was 25 drachmas, and this amount was deducted from the soldier's salary.
Trousers
The Romans, like the Greeks, considered pants an attribute of barbarism. During the cold season, they wore woolen wrappings on their legs. Short trousers to protect the skin of the thighs from horse sweat were worn by Gallic and German horsemen, who served en masse in the Roman army since the times of Caesar and Augustus. In the cold season, they were also worn by infantrymen of the auxiliary troops, who were also recruited from among the non-Romanized subjects of the empire.
The legionnaires depicted on Trajan's Column still do not wear pants, but Emperor Trajan himself and senior officers who rode for long periods of time are depicted wearing tight and short breeches. During the first half of the 2nd century, the fashion for this clothing spread among all categories of troops, and on the reliefs of the Column of Marcus Aurelius, short pants are already worn by all categories of troops.
According to Tacitus, there were cases when soldiers, in battles between two Roman armies, mixed with the enemy unnoticed because they picked up the enemy's abandoned shields. The late Roman writer Vegetius also said that each unit had shields of distinctive colors, and this is confirmed by the shields labeled with unit names in the Notitia Dignitatum (a 5th century AD list of armies). It has therefore long been believed that a similar system of shield emblems occurred in the earlier imperial period, and it is assumed that each of the shields on Trajan's Column commemorates the participation of a specific unit in the Dacian campaign. All subsequent emblems are based on drawings by Paul McDonnell-Staff from historical monuments. Paul believes that many of Rossi's sketches from his book Trajan's Column and the Dacian Wars are not accurate enough to identify the units.
Unlike the shields of our era, we know almost nothing about the coloring of these shields. The only early shield that has come down to us with clear painting is the rectangular semicircular scutum from Dura Europos. It dates back a century to its abandonment and was found in a basement armory. In its upper part there is an eagle framed by winged Victorias (images of goddesses) and in the lower part there is a lion surrounded by stars. The space between is filled with successive rectangular frames, one inside the other, forming a pattern like a highly intricate Persian carpet. This shield was quite likely specially richly decorated and intended for parades and therefore is not of great value when studying the coloring of early shields.
We get other clues from the 1st century AD - these are images of gladiators and 2nd century AD. n. e. is a mosaic with a mythological plot. The gladiators hold rectangular scutums painted bright red and yellow, with thick broken lines drawn in black and white on a red background and black and red on a yellow background. The mosaic depicts soldiers wearing bronze armor and white plumes, carrying rectangular scutums. Both shields depict black scorpions with their claws up and tail down. One shield has a yellow-brown background, the other is dark brown halfway up, then pink. The yellow-brown shield has a black outline, the other has a light yellow outline. The scorpion emblem is often associated with guard units (praetorians). The only value of these sources is that the artists of that time considered these colors acceptable when depicting shields.
Traditionally it is believed that most of the decoration on early imperial shields was made of thin sheet metal and attached to a painted surface. This practice was inherited from the Greek hoplites, but it created an obstacle to the weapon sliding off when it struck the shield. The only archaeological evidence that can be used as a practical guide is a shield recently found near Doncaster, which can be used as a secondary or primary source. At the moment, the presence of applications cannot be ruled out, especially for such elements as symbols depicting lightning flashes, but the most accurate statement is that not all decorative elements were drawn.
Strangely enough, while we must struggle for information about the color on the obverse of the shield, there is ample archaeological and monumental evidence for the reverse of the shields, which were painted a pale red.
Rice. 1. Images on Roman shields of the Republican and early Imperial periods.
(i) a legionnaire's shield from the Arc d'Orange, probably commemorating the suppression of the Gallic revolt by the Second Legion of Augusta in 21 AD. The Capricorn emblem is a famous symbol of this Legion.
Shields (ii), (iii) and (iv) are held by soldiers on board a warship, depicted on a monument probably dedicated to the Battle of Actium. At that time it was common practice to fill the ranks of sailors with legionnaires before important battles, but in my opinion the symbolism (iv) applies more to sailors, and (iii) to legionnaires.
Shields (v) and (vi) are from Mainz and date to around 75 AD. Only two legions were at this time in this place - the First Legion Adiutrix (Legio I Adiutrix) and the Fourteenth Legion Gemina (Legio XIV Gemina). The symbols that Paul interprets as lightning flashes on the shield (vi) are badly damaged and in my opinion may be a representation of the body of a bird as in picture (v).
(vii) image from the tombstone of Gnacus Musius of the Aquilifer of the Fourteenth Legion of Gemina. (vi) probably its similarity.
(viii) Praetorian shield from a bas-relief of the Chancellery (Cancellaria) from the late 1st century. Paul suggests that this image symbolizes a lightning strike in the night sky and the original shield had a black or dark blue background with white or silver stars, a moon and wings, a yellow or gold lightning strike and flashes.
(ix) Shield from Trajan's Column and identified by Rossi as belonging to the Thirtieth Legio Ulpia Traiana because its symbolism differs in style from the shields of the other legionaries on the Column, so he believes it may belong to a relatively new legion .
(x)-(xxv) also shields of legionnaires from Trajan's Column. (xviii) and (xxii) both show the type of symbolism that Rossi associates with the Thirtieth Legion, so let's try to refute his idea. (xxi) Rossi suggests was a meaningless image invented to replace the insignia of the disgraced Twenty-First Legio Rapax. Examination of the original does not provide any evidence of the disbandment of this legion and there is no real evidence that this legion took part in Trajan's wars or was disgraced. It is more realistic to believe that the shield belongs to a legion of non-Roman origin, and may belong to the Twenty-second Legion of Deiotriana (Legio XXII Deiotriana). (xii), (xiii) and (xxi) possibly have a central rib and it is likely that the other shields also have a central rib hidden by images of lightning. (xiv) may or may not have a lightning bolt down the center, because this cannot be seen in the original image. A similar shield (xxv) may have a lightning bolt instead of an edge. Rossi identifies (xxiii) with the First Legion of Minervia (Legio I Minervia) by the standard accompanying its image. This is possible, but since the source contains fewer images of totem animals than legions, it is not possible to draw an unambiguous conclusion.
(xxvi) possibly a praetorian shield, as it is associated on Colonus with the praetorian standard.
(xxvii) and (xxviii) both belong to the Guards cavalry on the Trajanic frieze. Paul suggests that the former refers to the Praetorian cavalry and the latter to the Equites Singulares.
(xxix), (xxx) and (xxxi) are all present on Trajan's Column, held by men with weapons and auxiliary armor. Paul classifies them all as divisions of the Perdites Singulares. I accept this statement in case (xxx), but prefer to regard the others as belonging to Cohors Scutata. Similar divisions are shown with rectangular scutum. (xxx) is often depicted in close proximity to the Emperor.
(xxxii) from a bas-relief of Antonine depicting praetorian officers and men, located in the Louvre. Three other shields with excellent designs are badly damaged.
(xxxiii) is based on one of the damaged shields located next to the shield at the base of the Column of Antoninus Pius, held by the Praetorian. The linear decorations on the shields are garlands with large flowers at the ends. The other two shields have a wide rim, divided into cells, each of which contains a flower. On one shield there is a symbol of lightning striking down inside the rim, on the other there is something resembling (viii).
(xxxiv) from a damaged bas-relief of Marcus Aurelius, repeated on the Arch of Constantine. Its shape now seems questionable and may be oval or rectangular with rounded edges. It is held by a legionnaire who, due to the presence of the trident and dolphin symbolism, may belong to one of the legions formed from sailors, such as the First or Second Adiutrix.
Rice. 2. Shields of Roman auxiliary infantry and mounted auxiliary units.
(xxxv)-(lxii) auxiliary infantry shields. (xxxv) is depicted with a short edge, but can also be without it. (xxxix) can also occur without a curl. Crescent moons are not always depicted on (xliv). (lix) may be without a wreath. Two versions of the shield (lix) are found together with the figure of an infantryman with a wolf skin on his head. Both have two additional crescents placed at each end of the shield. One of the tape ends is missing.
(lxiii)-(lxxiv) shields of mounted auxiliary units. (lxv), (lxviii) and (lxxii) are also found among foot soldiers and may therefore refer to the Cohors Equitata rather than the cavalry wing (Ala). When the shield (lxviii) is depicted on foot soldiers, it lacks a rib.